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Author: Dr. Kuntal Goswami
Australian Centre for Sustainable Development Research & Innovation (ACSDRI)
The Blue Planet-A Magazine on SustainabilityISSN: 2652-7987 (Online) ISSN: 2652-7995 (Print)Photography byEnam Elahe MullickArticle: 11 Issue: 4 Volume: 1 2022
www.acsdri.com
By Dr. Kuntal GoswamiAustralian Centre for Sustainable Development Research & Innovation (ACSDRI)Climate Change & Biodiversity Loss are
the two most intertwined risks of our time.
Both are driven by human activities and
interlinked through the Carbon Cycle
We are living in the era of human-induced
Carbon ImbalanceCarbon – the omnipresent element of
natureCarbon is omnipresent. It is one of nature’s
essential building blocks. Carbon is profoundly important in the universe. We are
all made from carbon and live in a carbon
world.
Carbon forms at the core of stars under
extreme temperatures. Hydrogen atoms
forms Helium. When two Helium atoms stuck
together, they form Berylium.
Berylium is extremely instable and does not
last long. As it forms, it tends to disintegrate
instantly and at that very moment or at that
fraction of a second, out of mere chance,
if it is hit by another Helium atom, then Carbon is formed.Carbon is released into the universe as
stars die. Carbon is the most abundant
element in the universe after Hydrogen
and Helium. A fifth of our body is made
of Carbon. We are all technically Stardust.
In the context of Climate Change, carbon is not the problem. We need to
learn about carbon cycle, how to reduce the present carbon imbalance
created by human activities. Hence,
we need to learn how to maintain the
carbon equilibrium of nature to ensure
sustainable life on earth.
Photography bySivarajan S.What is Climate Change?Climate change is a longterm shift in global or regional temperature, rainfall, or wind
patterns. This shift can be natural however,
in the present context, rises in temperature
since the 1800s are due to human activities,
primarily because of burning fossil fuels like
coal, oil and gas. This is popularly referred
as climate change
What is Biodiversity?
The Convention on Biological Diversity defines biological diversity as “the variability
among living organisms from all sources
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this
includes diversity within species, between
species and of ecosystems”
A simpler explanation of biodiversity is that
it represents collective diversity of all life on
Earth including animals, plants, fungi, and
micro organisms like bacteria.
Photography by
Nevitha R.S.
Why does Biodiversity matter?Simply put, human cannot survive without
biodiversity.
Animals and plants provide us with fresh water, food, and medicines. However, humans
cannot get food, water, medicines from any
single plant and animals, we need a collective diversity of plants and animals to gain all
these benefits from nature.
For example: plants and trees are essential
to improve the quality of clean air, limit rising
temperatures, protect us against climate
change and to limit soil erosion from rising
sea levels.
In the past the value of biodiversity and the ecosystem was sidelined in national decision-making, which resulted in a widespread loss of biodiversity and a significant decline in ecosystem services. An estimate shows more than half of the world’s GDP, approximately $44 trillion of value added goods, is dependent on industries that are highly or moderately reliant on nature and its services.
It is also estimated that transitioning to nature-friendly production practices could generate about $10 trillion in business opportunities and about 395 million jobs by 2030. Most importantly, a biologically diverse ecosystem can reduce upto 37% of carbon emissions, which will be an important contribution towards the objectives of the Paris
Agreement.
Hence, our natural environment is fundamental to our economics, health, and climate change mitigation and adaptation plans. However, human economic activity is causing biodiversity loss at an unprecedented level.
Photography by
Dr Veena Sagar
Climate Change & Biodi-versity loss – interrelationAs climate change will intensify, it will shift the distribution
and habitats of animals and
plants. The extent of intensification will also determine
whether species will ultimately
thrive or not. Climate change
as such is not the key driver of
biodiversity loss; rather overexploitation and habitat destruction are the leading causes of biodiversity loss.
Conti…
However, as the intensity of
climate change increases it
will contribute to biodiversity
loss. At the same time loss of
biodiversity will also cause climate change and can lead
to vicious cycle of relentless
escalation.
A rich and thriving biodiversity
can maintain health of ecosystem and facilitate carbon
capture. Hence, natural carbon sequestration will absorb
excess carbon out of the atmosphere otherwise which
will further absorb and reflect
heat
Photography by
Ashok Manjanath
How are Climate Change and Biodiversity intertwined?Climate change, biodiversity loss and human wellbeing are interdependent and inextricably connected with one another.
Carbon is one of the fundamental elements
of life on Earth. All plants and animals are
made from carbon. At the same time carbon is the common elements of all heat
trapping gases in the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide is the raw material for photosynthesis, and also a source of energy circulation. Therefore, distribution of carbon
in appropriate quantity in both above and
below the ground is important.
Plants transform light energy into chemical
energy and produces organic compounds
(carbohydrates) as food to live and grow.
Conti…
…How are Climate change and Biodiversity intertwined? …
…However, change in temperature and carbon dioxide alter rates of photosynthesis and carbon content within primary producers. Most carbon and nutrients aretransferred to soil through litterfall, root exudation and decaying organism.
Plants and animals on land & in the ocean create habitat structure, local environment, and source of food in ecosystem hierarchy. Plants also return half of the carbon to the atmosphere through respiration in the form of carbon dioxide.
Eventually plants, algae, micro-plankton degrade after death and some are buried for millennia to form coal, oil, and gas. In this process, carbon is trapped in these fossil fuels. These fossil fuels have
become the primary source of energy for human activities since the industrial revolution…
Conti…
Photography by
Ashok Manjanath
Photography by
Sateja Rajwade
…How are Climate change and Biodiversity intertwined? …
Human economic activities release these trapped carbon dioxides again in the atmosphere through the combustion process and alter atmospheric chemistry. We also transform land and ocean surface, causes deforestation and results in widespread loss of biodiversity and climate change.
Human activities such as change of land use or sea use, agricultural practice, and fossil fuel combustion are the direct drivers of biodiversity loss and climate change. A recent study based on cross-national sample of 115 countries showed that the occurrences of natural disaster events, rise in temperature, and change in precipitation, play important role in affecting biodiversity loss.
However, the impact on biodiversity loss is more affected by the changes in precipitation and temperature rise than the changes in the frequency of the natural disaster events.
Photography by
Devi Prasad Rao
Strategies to reduce impact of Climate change and Biodiversity lossStrategies to conserve biodiversity must be formulated in the context of climate
change and reciprocally, strategies to mitigate climate change should be formulated in the context of impact on biodiversity impacts.The government, the industry and the financial sector should be held responsible
for the loss in biodiversity. Their activities in pursuing the ultimate goal of prosperity
and profits are at the expense of biodiversity leading to unbalance economic development. Hence, to conserve nature we need better planning, control of corruption and stricter enforcement of environmental protection lawFrom now the government should sanction only “nature friendly” investment and
development program for future development. There is a need to strengthen respective countries’ national biodiversity strategies and action plans to reduce
emission of carbon stocks by preventing degradation of ecosystem which will in
turn halt climate change.The parties involved in the development process (including the financial institutions
that provide funding and their potential borrowers) should understand the risk of
biodiversity loss and should build certain criteria for safeguarding biodiversity loss
into every step of the project planning and in its financing approval.
What is Biodiversity Finance? Biodiversity finance is a growing area of Green Finance.
It is defined as finance that contributes or intends to contribute to activities that conserve, restore, or avoid
negative footprints on biodiversity
and nature caused by people.
For a project to be eligible for biodiversity finance, the project must be
consistent with the criteria for Green
Bond and Green Loan Principles,
and it needs to contribute either to
SDG-14 or to SDG-15
Photography by
Devi Prasad Rao
Photography by
Devi Prasad Rao
What constitutes biodiversity or nature related investment activities?To be considered as biodiversity or nature related investment activities, it should
address one of the following drivers of biodiversity loss:
a) to change land use – from agriculture, unsustainable forest management, urbanization, industrial developments, and transport networks.
b) to stop over-exploitation and unsustainable use of nature.
c) to stop pollution from nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous) and other pollutants
from industrial, mining, and agricultural activities as well as air pollution, greenhouse
gas emissions, untreated urban and rural waste, and plastic pollution.
d) to mitigate climate change
e) to stop spread of invasive species
Photography by
Dr Steven Andrews
What is Blue Carbon?
Blue Carbon is the carbon stored in the marine biosphere, such as in the leaves, branches, stems, roots of mangroves, saltwater tidal marshes, and seagrass meadows, and in the coastal organic soil.
Data suggest that coastal ecosystem can sequester carbon dioxide from atmosphere and oceans at significantly higher rate per unit area than terrestrial forest. Mangroves are tropical marine forest grows in the tidal flooded area at the edge of the land and sea.
Tidal marsh are coastal wetlands containing partially or fully submerged vegetation suited to both fresh and salt water Seagrasses are fully submerged flowering plants that can grow in meadows.
Photography by
Dr Steven Andrews
Importance of Blue Carbon
The marine ecosystem is a major element of the global carbon cycle, and it contributes approximately half of the annual photosynthetic absorption of carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas (GHG)) from the atmosphere.
Carbon is sequestered in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Blue carbon is
sequestered in living marine biomass for relatively short time scales (years to decades). However, unlike terrestrial ecosystems, carbon can be stored or remain
trapped in coastal soil for much longer time periods (centuries to millennia).
The reason for this is that in the terrestrial ecosystem there is potential for aerobic microbial oxidation and release back into atmosphere, while in the marine
ecosystem, the soil remains submerged underwater in an anaerobic state (low to
no oxygen). The Coastal Blue carbon ecosystem is highly efficient in storing and
sequestering carbon. However, if the coastal ecosystem gets degraded, lost, or
converted for other land use, then there will be a high risk or chance of releasing
blue carbon or CO2 to the atmosphere.
Conti…
Photography by
Dr Steven Andrews
…Importance of Blue Carbon…
…In addition to blue carbon, coastal and marine ecosystems provide other benefits such
as protection from storm and flood, erosion
prevention, filtering of pollutants and contaminants, spawning grounds for fish species, and
habitats for fisheries and marine species.
Studies suggest 83% of global carbon is circulated through the ocean. Data also suggests
that even though coastal habitats cover less
than 2% of the total ocean area, it accounts for
almost 50% of the total carbon sequestered in
ocean sediments.
What is a Wetland?
Water is the blood stream of the biosphere and wetlands are the source
and purifier of water. About 75 Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Indicators are directly or indirectly related to
Wetlands.
Lakes, rivers, swamps, marshes, peatlands, mangroves, underground system, lagoons, shellfish & coral reefs, and
kelp all constitute the global natural
wetland ecosystem. Wetland protects
us from floods, droughts, and other disasters. It supports biodiversity, provides
us with food and livelihoods. Wetland
is the largest storage facility for carbon
across among all the ecosystems.
All these wetland ecosystem services
can be consolidated under the following categories Provision services (food,
fresh water, fibre, fuel, biochemical and
genetic material), Regulating services
(climate, hydrology, pollution control,
erosion protection, natural hazards);
Cultural services (spiritual and inspirational, recreational, aesthetic, and
educational); and Supporting services
(biodiversity, Soil formation, Nutrient cycling, and pollination).
Photography by
Dr Steven Andrews
Composition of natural inland wetlands by percentage:Rivers & Streams – 6%; Natural lakes –
29%;
Non-forested peatlands-27%; Forested
peatlands-6%
Marshes and Swamps -22%; Forested
Wetlands-10%Composition of natural marine and coastal wetlands by ercentage:Unvegetated tidal flats-28%; Saltmarshes-34%;
Coastal deltas-2%; Mangroves-8%;
Seagrass beds-11%; Coral reefs (warm
water systems)-17%Regional distribution of global wetlands by percentage:Asia-31.8%; North America-27.1%;
Latin America and the Caribbean
15.8%;
Europe-12.5%; Africa-9.9%; Oceania-2.9%
Photography by
Rupesh Chindarkar
Photography by
Nivetha R. S.
Types of WetlandsGlobally we have lost about 35%
of wetland since 1970.
A recent estimate shows globally we have total natural wetland
ranging between 1.5 to 1.6 billion
hectares of wetland and out of this
about 93% of wetlands are inland
system whereas remaining 7% is
categorised marine and coastal
wetland.
In addition to that there are human made wetland in form of
agriculture water storage bodies, agricultural wetlands (such as
rice paddy), wastewater treatment / constructed wetlands, saltpans, aquaculture ponds and human-made karst & caves.
Photography by
Ashok Manjanath
More than a billion people depend on wetlands for living
Rice paddy agricultural wetlands provides staple diet for 3.5 billion people
Wetlands (especially rivers, lakes and coastal areas are hotspot for relaxation
and pleasure tourism
Safe water access enhances educational opportunities for communities living along wetland
Almost all of world’s freshwater consumption is either directly or indirectly
drawn from wetlands
Sustainable upstream water management can provide affordable and
clean energy
Wetlands supports 266 million jobs through wetland-based tourism and travel
activities
Health wetlands protects from flooding and storm surge
Urban wetland acts natural affluent treatment zone
Sustainably managed wetlands support water consumption demand
Heathy wetland can mitigate climate change as natural carbon storage
zone. For example: Peatlands cover only 3% of global land but store about
twice the amount of carbon stored by world’s entire forest biomass.
Healthy and productive oceans rely on well-functioning coastal and marine
wetlands.
40% of all the world’s species live and breed in wetlands
Photography by
Sagar Shinde
NOT just HUMAN-induced CLIMATE CHANGE but
HUMAN-induced EXTINCTION OF SPECIES
Species evolve and become extinct overtime a normal process of nature. It is estimated that 98% of all species that ever lived are now extinct. cientists have observed that, at present, the extinction of species is happening 1000 times more quickly than expected and 29% of 142,000 assessed species are now extinct.
Percentage of Species in the International Union
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red listDate shows one in four species
are at risk of extinction.
Recent assessment shows
that, 40% of amphibians; 34%
Conifers; 33% Reed corals; 31%
Sharks and rays; 27% selected
crustaceans; 25% Mammals;
and 14% Birds, are at very high
risk of extinction.
Photography by
Dr Kuntal Goswami
Photography by
Mark Freed
NOT just HUMAN-induced CLIMATE CHANGE but
HUMAN-induced EXTINCTION OF SPECIESThe Living Planet Index (LPI) started in 1970
as the base year. It measures the average
change in the number of individuals animal
populations across the world. A ‘population’ is defined as a species within a geographical area.
For example: All African Elephants are
same species, however, South African, and
Tanzanian elephants are considered as different populations.
The index represents 20,811 populations of
4,392 species.
The LPI does not tell us the number of species, populations or individuals lost; the
number of extinctions that have occurred;
or even the share of species that are declining.
The LPI only tells us that between 1970 and
2016, on average, there was a 68% decline
in population size across the 20,811 studied
populations.
Photography by
Ashok Manjanath
Forests in the Natural Ecosystems – the Bedrock of Life on Earth
Forest is fundamental to fight climate change, to conserve nature, to save people and to run the economy. It is estimated that 1.6 billion people depends on forests for food, water, wood, and employment.
Forests sequester carbon, regulate our climate, acts as flood barriers, recharge groundwater, filter air, protect biodiversity. In addition, forests contribute about $150 trillion to economic progress.
Deforestation is increasing global CO2 emissions by 15% and if we consider tropical deforestation a country then it would be the world’s third largest emitter. It is estimated that globally we deforest tropical forest equal to the size of New York’s Central Park in every 15 minutes.
Hence, it is impossible to halt climate change and stay well below 1.5 degree C temperature rise relative to pre industrial revolution days, until or less we can stop deforestation.
Photography by
Sateja Rajwade
Alarming facts of the Global Biomass of all mammals and birds
Even though farmed animals (mainly cows, pigs, sheep, goats, and horses) constitute a handful varieties but compared with wild animals, farmed animals now
constitute 60% of the global biomass of all mammals.
Single human species constitute 36 % of the global biomass of all mammals.
Wide varieties of wild mammals make up only 4 %.
Similar facts also noticed in the case of birds.
One single bird, the farmed chicken, constitute 57% of global bird biomass, whilst
wild birds’ make-up 29%.
Photography by
Jayesh O Bhanushali
What are Aichi Biodiversity Targets and how much each target has progressed?
Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society.
Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use
Strategic Goal C: Improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity.
Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem
services.
Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning,
knowledge management and capacity building.
Out of 20 targets only six targets had been partially progressed and these six targets
are:
Target 9: Controlling invasive alien species pathways and preventing their establishment.
Target 11: 17% of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10% of coastal and marine areas are conserved.
Target 16: Use of Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the
Fair and Equitable Sharing of benefits arising from their utilization is present in
signatories.
Target 17: Submission, development, and implementation of national biodiversity strategy plans
Target 19: Research, scientific support and technology relating to biodiversity
conservation are improved and widely shared
Target 20: Signatories have mobilised the needed amount of financial resources
to implement their national biodiversity strategy plans via domestic spending
and international financial flows.
Photography by
Sateja Rajwade
The Need for a Global Annual Biodiversity Conservation Fund
The World Economic Forum, estimates that about USD $44 trillion of economic value or over half of the world’s GDP, is moderately or highly dependent on nature. The Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (BES) Index has estimated that one-fifth of all countries, with both developing and advanced economies, have more than 30%
of their territory at risk of ecosystem collapse due to a decline in biodiversity.
For example: countries such as Kenya, Nigeria and Pakistan are particularly at risk as they are highly dependent on their agricultural sectors and, additionally, they have highly fragile ecosystems.
A recent study shows about 60% of global biodiversity loss happens to seven countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, China, India, Australia, and the USA.
It is estimated the world needs USD 722-967 billion per year by 2030 as Global Annual Biodiversity Conservation Funding and out of that 76% will be required to halt
and reserve global biodiversity loss.
A) Funding requirement for Biodiversity Conservation
Expand the global protected area network to 30% of all USD $149-192
terrestrial and marine ecosystems
Global conservation and restoration of critical coastal USD $27-37 billion
ecosystems including mangroves, seagrass, saltmarshes,
and oyster reefs
B) Funding requirement for mainstream biodiversity conservation
Global sustainable management of agricultural lands
USD $438-580 billion
(cropland, and rangelands), forests, and fisheries
Global invasive species management
USD $36-84 billion
Biodiversity conservation in urban environments and re
USD $72.6-73.2 billion
ducing water pollution
Roots – the Invisible Heroes
Roots remain out of sight and out of
mind, but the root is almost half of the
overall plant. It is extremely important
to stop soil erosion, to hold nutrients in
the soil and to fight climate change.
Forest soil holds 60 to 70% of carbon
and the way to pass carbon from the
atmosphere to the soil is through roots.
Through photosynthesis plants and
trees absorb carbon dioxide and store
the carbon throughout their biomass including the roots and then transferred
to the soil
Conti…
Photography by
Katan Talati
Photography by
Vinod Shlivahana
…Roots – the Invisible Heroes (conti…)
… Roots also creates a new hotspot
of ecosystem under the soil and creates a symbiotic relationship with fungi
to source minerals. In future we may prefer plants with longer roots keeping in mind longer dry
spell due to climate change. Plants may need to grow deep in the soil to source water. Longer roots can also
maintain soil fertility
As roots form a web of network it hold the soil, absorbs sediments, and helps to protect coastal erosion and plants diminish the energy of larger waves, thereby, helps in coastal protection.
New research also suggesting that roots can be used to mine resources such rare earth minerals
Photography by
Mark Parnell
Soil – reservoir of Biodiversity & stock of Carbon
Soil is the reservoir of global biodiversity, and home to more than 25% of global
biological diversity. It supports the range of micro-organisms, alongside flora and
fauna. It is estimated that 1 gram of soil contains upto 1 billion bacteria cells, upto
200 meters of fungal hyphae and a wide range of nematodes, earthworms, and
arthropods. Hence, arguably, soil contains the most diverse terrestrial communities
on the planet.
Conti…
Photography by
Devi Prasad Rao
…Soil – reservoir of Biodiversity & stock of Carbon…
…Soil organisms vary from 20 nm to 20-30 cm body width and divided into four sizes:
Microbes includes virus, bacteria, archaea, fungi (20 nm to 10 um) and Microfauna like soil protozoa and nematodes (10 um to 0.1 mm). They facilitate decomposition of soil organic matter, weathering of minerals.
Mesofauna (0.1 mm to 2 mm) are soil microarthropods (mites, springtails, enchytraeids, apterygote and small larvae of insects). They facilitate transformation of soil organic matter and increases the surface of active biochemical interactions in the soil.
Macrofauna (2 nm to 20 mm) are large soil invertebrates (earthworms, woodlice, ants, termites, beetles, insect larvae). They act litter transformers, increases water permeability and soil aeration.
Megafauna (greater than 20 mm) are vertebrates (mamalia, reptilian and amphibia). They create spatial heterogeneity on the soil surface and in its profile through
movement.
Conti…
Photography by
Sourav Mahant
…Soil – reservoir of Biodiversity & stock of
Carbon…
…Soils holds largest stock of carbon on earth and in a broad sense, the carbon in soil is recycled within a microbe-driven soil food web. Microorganisms are thus central players in the transformation of plant and animal residues and are also key reservoirs
of organic carbon in soil .
Carbon is either fixed or released from soils, depending on the activity of the soil microbiomes, and driven by abiotic conditions such as water content, temperature, oxygen level and pH level.
Soil has a tremendous potential for regulating the atmospheric carbon content by sequestering carbon and mitigating climate change.
Reference
International Finance Corporation (2020), International Finance Corporation (2020)
Carbon: The Unauthorised Biography, Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) (2022)
Global Biodiversity Outlook 5, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2020)
Global Wetland Outlook – State of the World’s Wetlands and their services to people,
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (2018)
Global Wetland Outlook – State of the World’s Wetlands and their services to people,
Muzafar Shah Habibullah, Badariah Haji Din, Siow-Hooi Tan, and Hasan Zahid (2021)
Understanding your Blue Carbon Project, Clean Energy Regulator (2022)
Scientific Outcome of the IPBES-IPCC Workshop on Biodiversity and climate change, IPBES-IPCC (2021)
State of Knowledge of Soil Biodiversity, Food and Agriculture organisation of the United
Nations (2020)